Teacher Education Policies in the European Union and the Quality of Lifelong Learning

by João Formosinho
University of Minho

This conference focuses on describing the most important trends in teacher education related to the build up of post-primary mass schooling in Portugal (1970-2000). The expansion of post-primary¹ education in the 1970s and 1980s provoked important changes in teacher recruitment and training models.

This had a double consequence in initial teacher education. On one hand, it promoted the creation of new models of initial teacher education. On the other hand, it promoted the creation of easier ways of access to the teaching profession.

The process of building mass schooling in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s gradually implied a more comprehensive perception of the teaching function. The widening of the teaching function was a gradual process in the last thirty years of the 20th century, alongside with a diversification process. The teaching function was stretched with new teachers’ roles regarding the students, regarding the curriculum, regarding participation in school and community life, and regarding in service training. The set up of a massive in service teacher education program was the answer of the 1990s to this. In service attendance became an inherent part of being a teacher.

In the 1990s, this diversification process led to the emergence of teaching specialisations. The 1986 Education Act also considers the existence of specialised functions in educational administration and in schools, the performance of which calls for specific qualifications to be acquired by teachers on specialised education programmes. So, a specialised teacher education dimension was added to the educational system. Those specialised functions range from special needs education, school management, student teaching supervision, curriculum co-ordination, in-service teacher education, etc. The specialised teacher education is a professional training that confers abilities for a specific domain of the teaching activity.

The report will consider separately the problems of initial, in service and specialised teacher education. The report analyses and interprets the main current issues in each of the domains and dimensions of teacher education:

1. Interrelating teacher education policy changes (or teacher education practices) and school changes;
2. Interrelating teacher education in higher education institutions and qualifications management and teaching performance in schools.

1. INITIAL TEACHER EDUCATION IN PORTUGAL

1.1. Secondary mass education and evolution of teacher recruitment

The expansion of post-primary education in Portugal in the 1970s and the 1980s provoked important changes in teacher training and recruitment models. In twenty years (between 1964-65 and 1984-85) the number of teaching places more than trebled while the number of pupils did not double.

The growing need for more teachers brought about a lowering of academic and professional standards of access to the teaching profession, since initially this need was satisfied more through the enlargement of the recruitment criteria than through the intensification of teacher training institutions and courses. It was necessary to appeal to the available graduates – firstly, the academically qualified but not professionally certified graduates were used; later on even non-graduates were called upon to "deliver classes".

The teaching body of the secondary mass schools has greater diversity of academic and professional qualifications than before – senior teachers trained for an elite school worked side by side with newly trained teachers, and both worked alongside with non certified graduates and also with non graduates². This had great consequences in conditions of work, in occupational status and in social representation of teachers

1.2. Secondary mass education and evolution of teacher training - 1970s and 1980s

The process of secondary mass schooling had a double consequence in the training of teachers. On one hand, it induced the new Universities created in the 1970s³ to formulate new models of initial teacher education (the so called "integrated approach"⁴ which trained and certified teachers in the same process). This was a structural change in teacher education patterns adapting teacher education institutions to the new demands of mass schooling. The teacher education curriculum included a significant increase in the educational sciences with the inclusion of such new subjects as curriculum, educational technology, sociology of education, educational administration, alongside the more traditional ones – history of education, psychology of education, specific didactics.

On the other hand, the process of secondary mass schooling demanded from the State the creation of easier ways of access to the teaching profession for those non certified graduates working in comprehensive schools through processes of in service professional teacher certification. Such changes followed a labour trade union logic of providing the non certified graduates, used by the system in its expansion stage, with similar opportunities of certification and tenure.

The same social phenomenon (secondary mass schooling) brought about two different, and apparently divergent, policies of teacher recruitment and training. Those policies led to two opposing trends in teacher education.

On one hand, the creation of professional models of initial teacher education explicitly aimed at the new comprehensive school - valuing theoretical information on educational subjects and based on the new of universities. On the other hand, models run by the educational authorities (from 1974 to1985) which promoted access to the teaching profession to the non certified graduates valuing the role of school experience and devaluing pedagogical theoretical information.

Only in 1985, there was a government policy to close up the gap between those two opposing models with the generalisation of in service teacher certification in universities and (polytechnic) teacher education colleges.

1.3. INITIAL TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE 1990s – "UNIVERSITISATION", INTEGRATION, ACCREDTITATION AND EVALUATION

In 1986, the Education Act defined the integrated model of professional teacher education as the normal route to become a teacher. As a consequence, even Faculties of Humanities, traditionally resistant to explicit professional teacher education programs, adopted, without enthusiasm, the new model determined in the Education Act⁵. Generally, they adopted a weak version of the model.

In the 1990s in all areas, except the technological one, teachers were trained in this new model. From then on, the mainstream of professional teacher education was done in higher education institutions, including the student teaching supervision and responsibility. Thus, most part of the teachers trained in the 1990s were already professionally certified before beginning to work in schools.

The minority model of in service teacher certification was also under the responsibility of universities and (polytechnic) teacher education colleges.

Thus, from the1990’s onwrds, there was a clear "universitisation" of all teacher education. One can partially include in the "universitisation" process Teacher Education Colleges in Polytechnic, since their organisational culture is very much based on university culture, by opposition to the previous Teaching Normal Schools culture⁶. This adoption of university culture is reinforced by the fact that higher academic degrees (masters, doctorates), and thus career promotion, of its teachers depend upon universities.

This "universitisation" is reinforced by the creation or development, in the 1990s, of several private teacher education colleges and universities offering teacher education courses. The importance of universities in teacher education was also consolidated by the development, in the 1990s, of post-graduate courses (post-graduate diplomas, masters or doctorate degree).

The "universitisation" of teacher education was concomitant with a process of assertion of university autonomy. The state did not considered, at the time, the specificity of university teacher education process within the general autonomy process.

This specificity comes from the fact that

(a) Portuguese universities confer the professional certificate and not just the academic degree;

(b) the state is responsible for formulating and implementing policies for infant, primary and secondary education, which includes definition of the teachers profile and roles;

(c) Portuguese state is by far the biggest employer of teachers (nine out of ten teachers are civil servants, that is, state functionaries);

(d) Absence of (significant) market regulation in education;

(e) Absence of corporative or professional orders control.

As Campos⁷ said

"The specific expected outcomes of teacher education are not clearly established and the definition of the curriculum components to achieve them is nearly generic, as higher education is, scientifically and pedagogically autonomous. Therefore it is small wonder there is great curriculum diversity in the more than three hundred programmes provided by nearly fifty institutions, even among programmes which prepare for the same teaching qualification. There is no evidence given this diversity, although desirable to a certain extent, that equivalence among the main outcomes is being achieved and that these are suitable to the teaching subjects and levels they should qualify for. "

Answering to this de-regulation of the teacher education system, the State, in late 1990s, created an accreditation process for all initial teacher education, either private or public, either polytechnic or university. It was created, in 1998, an accreditation body - the National Institute for the Accreditation of Teacher Education. A General Council governs it, having representation of teacher education institutions, basic and secondary teachers, parents, teachers’ employers, departments of the Ministry of Education, student teachers and business. Teacher education accreditation evaluates how appropriate the initial teacher education programme is to the quality demands of professional teaching performance. The process is still in a preparatory stage; there are yet neither accredited courses nor on going accreditation processes.

Another important regulation mechanism is Government definition of professional teaching profiles. Preparation for this is now in the initial stages.

Under the university autonomy process, there has been developed another important process for the regulation of the system – the evaluation of initial teacher education programs. Associations of each sector’s higher education institutions assure university courses evaluation. The process is co-ordinated by the National Council for the Evaluation of Higher Education. It is a self-evaluation procedure initially undertaken by the institutions’ staff and then validated by an external committee⁸. Since this an on going process, its effects on initial teacher education internal and external regulation can not yet be analysed.

1.4. The education of infant and primary school teachers

Infant and primary teacher education was traditionally in Portugal, like in many other European countries, a process not included in higher education. To educate infant and primary school teachers was certainly not a university matter, since it was considered to appeal more to sound moral, positive feelings towards children and helping attitudes than to subject knowledge and conceptualisation abilities.

Primary teacher education suffered a process of de-professionalization during the New State (1926-1974). This process gradually reduced the requirements of access and training of primary school teachers (in 1928, 1930, 1931, 1935, and 1942). This process had its nadir in 1936 with the closing of all Normal Schools of the country. At that time the difference of years of training) between the least qualified primary school teacher (four years of training) and the most qualified secondary school teachers (nineteen years of training⁹ ) was fifteen years. Such distance of training was successively reduced since the seventies for seven years, six years, three years¹⁰.

In the mid 1980s Government transformed all teacher education into higher education by creating, in all regions, teacher education colleges for infant, primary and lower secondary schools¹¹.

In 1998, Government decided that both infant and primary teachers should have the same academic qualification as secondary school teachers – that is, the "licenciatura" degree. Currently, the training of infant, primary, and secondary school teachers has equivalent academic and professional qualification. The unification of qualification level for all teachers was completed.

1.5. Initial teacher education and teachers qualifications, performance and professionality – current issues

1.5.1. Initial teacher education and teachers performance

Many schools in the 1970’s and 1980’s had a majority of non-professionally certified teachers and a significant number of non-academically qualified ones. This change had not been followed but a change in teaching practices and duties – roles, powers, and responsibilities. All teachers had the same curricular planning expectations, the same evaluation responsibilities, the same disciplinary powers, the same basic school responsibilities, and, in some cases, the same access to co-ordination posts. All teachers had the same powers, duties and responsibilities¹², this meaning both the experienced and the beginner, both the academic qualified and the non qualified, both the professionally certified and the non certified, both the tenured and permanent and the one which compulsorily changed school every year¹³.

This led to a lowering of teaching performance standards, creating a "teaching minimum duties load". Gradually there was an identification of contact time with teaching time, thus reducing teachers’ presence in schools to class time¹⁴ (and evaluation meetings time). Thus, other class teaching related activities - classes preparation time, marking time, student attendance - were not subject to school control. This widespread culture of the "bureaucratic minimum"¹⁵ maintained the implicit concepts of the school for elite - diffuse hierarchy, "pedagogical privacy, "classroom sovereignty" to minimise control over teacher’s performances¹⁶.

This bureaucratic culture was fostered by the complete integration of the teaching profession in the civil service. The expansion of mass schooling in Portugal was delivered through the creation of state schools¹⁷, which meant that almost all those new teachers become civil servant (state functionaries). This led to a functionary like definitions of duties and responsibilities and transformed Portuguese teachers in the most significant group in Portuguese Civil Service. Each time more the State appeared as the master of all the Portuguese teachers. This civil servant status naturally reinforces bureaucratic trends in the teaching profession^.

This civil servant (state functionary) culture is still very present in the mainstream of Portuguese teachers, but it coexists with an emerging professional culture. There is a strong (but yet hidden) tension in those two teachers subcultures. As Campos¹⁸ said:

"The broad definition reported in the Education Act is sufficient to characterise teaching activity as professional. The overall characterisation of teaching qualifications present in this political definition is not that of a civil servant who can follow external rules, nor that of a technician using standard practices whilst unaware of the specific context s/he acts in. Rather, it is the characterisation of a professional capable of analysing each teaching situation and producing the teaching practices likely to lead the highest number of students through the learning process, and capable of evaluating and reflecting on their own practice in a way which increases their competence in this process.

Several changes have been occurring in basic and secondary education over the last few years, with implications on teacher performance profiles, thus constituting new challenges for their education These changes lead broadly to a more context-driven teacher activity, which shapes a performance profile increasingly approaching that of an autonomous professional over that of a civil servant or technician."

1.5.2. Initial teacher education and teachers professionality - two types of professional integrated teaching models for secondary school teachers

In this scenario two types of professional integrated teaching models for secondary school teachers (11-18 years) evolved in Portuguese Universities. On one hand, a comprehensive professional model based on an extended professionality concept. This model encompasses courses in sociology of education, educational administration, curriculum development and had an important component of student teaching practice alongside the course. It is the generally the model of the new universities. On the other hand, a restrict professional model based on a didactic vision of teaching professionality. This model emphasises the specific knowledge domain and focuses the educational component sciences in didactic courses, devaluing the study of the social and cultural problems of mass schools. This second perspective is more common in "classical" Humanities Faculties. Probably those two models have different assumptions about what teaching in mass schools is.

1.5.3. Initial teacher education certification and teaching qualifications

There are important problems in the overrigid system of bureaucratic management of subject teaching qualifications for lower and higher secondary schooling. The system implies that professional teacher education courses in higher education institutions follow to the letter the bureaucratically defined "subject teaching groups" in schools since those same groups are used for the certification, in higher education institutions, recruitment, bureaucratic competition, appointment, tenure, in the educational system, departmental grouping and timetabling in schools.

This definition of teaching qualifications has long been regarded as inadequate, considering on-going changes in primary and secondary education curriculum structure. Nonetheless, several attempts to redefine them have failed. Those difficulties can be explained by the overrigidity of a system that appears to be more prone to break down than to yield to the new school and university realities.

As those changes have strong labour implications in teacher recruitment, bureaucratic competition, appointment, tenure, and also in staff management in schools, teacher’ unions are somewhat resistant to significant changes in the process. Administrative inertia is also part of the explanation. On the other hand, there is not in Portuguese schools still an overt demand for an alternative system of teaching qualifications management and more autonomy in teacher recruitment.

1.6. "universitisation" of all initial teacher education - current issues

The "universitisation" of all teacher education¹⁹ in late 1980’s and 1990’s brought about several benefits – a more solid theoretical foundation for teaching, status recognition for the teaching profession, more research in educational sciences, more research about teaching and teachers, broadening of perspectives of teachers due to in service education, joint field projects²⁰. It brought about also the creation of many courses aimed at teaching specialisations and academic courses in educational sciences (masters, doctorates). It brought about also a better academic status for the departments of education and the education faculty.

But the "universitisation" of teacher education brought about also some problems due to the mismatch of an institutional academic culture and the nature of the professional mission committed to teacher educating universities. The underlying problem is that those mismatches are often not seen as problems. The sophisticated analysis produced by academics are reserved for state policies and not used often for the understanding of university policies, critical thinking is more used over school culture and practices rather than on university culture and university professors practice²¹.

1.6.1. Absence of consensus about initial teacher education models

In the 1990s, there is some consensus (but not unanimity) about the adequacy of universities developing teaching professional courses; less consensus about universities conferring teaching professional certifications (instead of teaching oriented academic qualifications); no consensus about the most adequate model for professional initial teacher education.

Specific discipline domain departments (that deliver the scientific knowledge on subject-matter component) claim for a greater percentage of the curriculum at a sacrifice of educational sciences. This led the two above referred models – the restrict professionality model and the comprehensive professionality model.

Underlying this debate, it is often a bias against the educational sciences considered as being too new, too soft, supposedly lacking both the objectivity and reliability of natural sciences and the long historical tradition of humanities.

As a reaction to those views some education faculty members try to impose themselves through a strict traditional academic behaviour, thus distancing themselves from the pragramatic concerns related to the professional teacher education mission that was the initial legitimisation basis of those departments.

1.6.2. University institutional and organisational culture and teaching professional culture

A university culture based on subject specialisation may be not the most adequate context to foster attitudes of interdisciplinary perspective taking or multiprofessional work. A university culture based on considering curricula as juxtaposition of individual courses may be not the most adequate context to foster a global vision of teaching in our mass schools.

A university culture based on departmental compartmentalisation may be not the most adequate context to develop theory-practice integration skills leading to a more reflective practice or to team working. A university culture based on feudal fragmentation²² may be not the most adequate context to foster attitudes of co-operation and sharing, may be not the best context to promote professional collegiality²³.

1.6.3. Control of the individual professional certification license

Due to the above referred characteristics, universities are not very able to take into account personal and emotional characteristics of student teachers, which are important in a successful pedagogical relationship. Those characteristics are not considered in the entrance process, and often are not considered in the exit process. So emotionally unstable, drug addicted, or otherwise disturbed individuals, can occasionally be certified, provided they evidence minimum academic achievement.

This minimisation of personal elements may be highly dysfunctional, since no one else in the system seems to be capacitated to analyse those personal requirements for the teaching profession.

In fact, recruitment, bureaucratic competition, appointment, tenure, all rely on impersonal judgements based on the certification process conferred by higher education institutions. Schools have little power to solve internally problems arising over personal disturbances,

1.6.4. University teacher education curriculum, schools curriculum and teaching performance profile

As Campos²⁴ said

"These [teacher eduction] programmes simultaneously award academic degrees and professional diplomas and confer and certify professional qualifications [but] There is no detailed, clear political definition of the functions which professional teacher education programmes qualify one to perform, nor even of the competencies which should be held or learned in order to do so. However, there is [an] implicit definition of competencies needed for professional teaching performance. This definition is present in policies related to curriculum and student assessment, to school management and evaluation, and to teachers’ duties. To clarify this implicit definition there has been a recent decision to establish a political definition of a performance profile in the teaching fields and levels for which each teaching qualification provides preparation. Preparation for this is now in the initial stages.

This absence of political definition of what is specifically required of teachers - of a performance profile - is reflected in an absence of a political definition of what is required of teacher education programs.

Generally, the implicit or explicit definition of a performance profile has been concerted by direct negotiation of government and teacher unions, with the exclusion of teacher education institutions and of other agencies of civil society²⁵.

Teacher education curricula and practices must have some degree of interrelation with school curricula; are influenced by teacher educators perspectives about education, learning, schooling and teaching; must bear in mind school conditions, culture and practices, teachers culture and practices.

University teacher education curricula and practices are also too often determined by individual professors curriculum vitae needs and opportunities; by university professors perspectives on academic education, bookish learning and lecture teaching perspectives; and by institutional university ivory tower culture and practices.

1.6.5. University autonomy and teacher education accreditation

As the National Institute for the Accreditation of Teacher Education was created in 1998, and the system for initial teacher education professional accreditation was created in June 1999, the accreditation of programmes has not yet started. Its instruments and methodologies are being prepared. But all existing teacher education programmes will have to apply for professional accreditation.

There is sometimes a resentment or resistance from trade unions and university professors to this new process.

Some university professors’ resentment comes from those who think that university teacher education courses, in spite of conferring professional certificates, should have that same autonomy of any other university course. Those professors resent control over their decisions by, what they consider less qualified or less academically oriented persons (bureaucrats, school teachers, teacher union leaders, parent associations, etc,). There is also mistrust from other university professors about what they perceive either as bureaucratic or clients control, which could introduce ideological constraints or diminish innovation opportunities.

As it was already said, there are several specificities of teacher certification that recommend state regulation in this process.

The mistrust and resistance by some trade unions comes from the fact that they were used in the 1980s and the 1990s of an almost monopoly of social negotiation with the state about educational issues – laboral, professional, curricular, school management, etc. They have resented already the entrance of in service teacher certification to Teacher Education College and universities in mid 1980s.

1.7. Teacher education, corporative concert and state regulation

Portuguese society has been developing since the 1980s a growing neo-corporatism. Even Public Administration has its own specific bureaucratic interests and acts often as a corporation. Municipalities adopt often also the corporative rhetoric and practices.

There are a lot of corporative rhetoric and practice in the educational system – from teachers, universities, parents associations, educational public administration (central and regional), municipalities.

Thus, state regulation is often confused with corporative concert, with corporation negotiations with Government. Corporate concert is important in a democratic perspective and unavoidable in a pragmatic one. But State regulation has to be more than corporative concert. In a democracy public interest in not the mere sum of corporate interests, Government policy cannot be the minimum common denominator of corporative demands.

Teacher education is a most important national activity. It is important that accreditation processes, self-evaluation procedures, external evaluation procedures, independent bodies’ decision-making, corporative concert, public discussion, specialist debate, contribute for a better education in schools.

2. IN SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION IN PORTUGAL

2.1. Widening of the teaching function in the decades of 1970,1980 and 1990

The process of building mass schooling in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s gradually implied a more comprehensive perception of the teaching function. The diversity of school students and of school community contexts, the heterogeneity of teachers, the new demands of parents and communities, the building up of a society of information in the 1990s brought about processes of widening teachers roles in mass schools.

The set up of a model of democratic management of schools in 1974 – after the April Revolution – was the background for the widening of the teaching function to participation both in school and community life.

The teaching function also was being diversified. Diversification means that there are some middle management tasks and jobs related to teaching that become part of the teaching profession. Thus, almost any teacher should have to accept them at some time of his/her career, being this acceptance part of the normal participation in school life.

The first indicators of this need for diversification in mass schools were the creation of co-ordinators of all the teachers of a class ("class directors") and the co-ordinators of all the teachers of subject ("subject delegates"). Those answers were already given in the early 1970’s (1972). "Class director" still is a very widespread function in secondary schools (5th to 12th year) both in basic education and non compulsory one. In the 1980’s and 1990’s class director roles were extended to communication with class parents, in individual attendance and meeting "Subject delegates" was also considered part of a teacher’s role.

All this widening and diversification, all this growth of tasks, responsibilities, and expectations has been theorised as intensification of the teaching activity.

The widening of the teaching function was a gradual process in the last thirty years of the 20th century. One can try a synthesis of what has been gradually included in teaching in mass schools. Teaching in mass schools means nowadays:

Regarding the students, the teaching function was incorporating the responsibility for coursework evaluation and individual students promotion, for attendance to special needs children and ethnic minorities children, for tutorial support for pupils with learning difficulties, for interaction with to pupil’s parents, for promotion of after-school care activities for their children.

Regarding the curriculum, the teaching function was integrating the responsibility of handling diversified methodologies, a bigger responsibility in curriculum delivery, individualisation of instruction, orientation of extra-class curricular activities of curricular and evaluation of projects, programs and innovations.

Regarding participation in school and community life, teachers had been expected to fulfil a much more active role both in the lives of their organisational and local communities. Involvement was a key concept here.

Regarding in service training, the teaching function was integrating the compulsory education of frequency of shares of in service training and the convenience of the participation in projects in the school and the educational territories.

2.2. Widening and bureaucratisation of the teaching function –two contradictory trends in the 1980s

As the building up of the comprehensive school brought about a much more heterogeneous teaching body, Government and educational administration civil service were not able to rely any more on initial training and institutional socialisation of teachers in schools as homogeneity factors. So, they had to make explicit behaviours and roles that were just implicit.

Thus, the widening of the teaching function was brought about in the bureaucratic model through administrative regulations (dispatches, "normative dispatches", bureaucratic circular letters, direct orders, etc.). All the bureaucratic paraphernalia was present in the 1970s and 1980s to rule schools and teachers. Government and educational administration authorities did not consider in service training as a necessary support to this enlargement and diversification process²⁶.

There was tension between the demands of educational administration authorities to promote bureaucratic definitions and control²⁷, and the demands by government and parents (and some educational authorities) to enlarge and widen what is expected of teachers in comprehensive school.

The approval by Parliament of the Education Act, in 1986, was followed by the appointment of a committee to formulate the plan for its implementation - the Education Reform Committee. Its proposals were followed up by an intense debate in schools and universities (1987-88). The bureaucratic approach to educational innovation was overtly subject to criticism. It became gradually consensual that in service education should be provided to support the educational reform process and, broadly, to support all innovation.

Thus, that emerging tension became explicit in the aftermath of the debates generated by the Educational Committee Reform. Government had, at the same time, to mobilise teachers, appealing to their initiative and expertise based on a broad professionality, and to define explicitly what was expected from them in the new context of educational reform, appealing to the traditional bureaucratic definition based on a state functionary restrict professionality.

The answer to this tension felt alike by Government and teacher unions was the promotion of a massive and professionally compulsory in service teacher education program.

2.3. Massive in service teacher education - the answer of the 1990s

In 1990, Government and Teacher Union agreed to explicitly relate advancement in teaching career to in service education. The rationale behind was that massive in service education for all teachers was a necessary condition for the implementation of governmental educational reform, for the success of school based innovation and, in general, for the improvement of teacher performance in mass schools. In service education is not legally compulsory, but became professionally almost compulsory, since it is a necessary pre-requisite (alongside with service time and not unsatisfactory performance evaluation) to advance in the ten scale stages of teaching career²⁸. No one is compelled to progress in teaching career, but as advancement is explicitly and strictly linked with salary and, thus, with retirement pension, the process is socially compulsory.

This meant that both Government and trade unions agreed that the bureaucratic model was not adequate for innovation in the complex context of mass schooling. It was also implicit that educational innovation, teachers performance and in service training were strongly interrelated processes.

2.4. in service teacher education stutures and programs – 1993-1999

Following this agreement Government set up a massive in service teacher education program that changed the daily life of teachers in this decade. In service courses attendance became an inherent part of being a teacher.

The most important steps towards its implementation were the set up of in service teacher education institutions, the creation of a specific funding system, the formulation of a legal and bureaucratic framework, and the set up of an accreditation board (Scientific and Pedagogic Council for In-service Teacher Education).

There is a specific funding system for in-service education supplied by in-service teacher education centres. The Ministry of Education sets out the priorities in terms of content and type of action and the Centres apply for funding with concrete in-service teacher education actions.

The range of institutions supplying in-service education is wider. Besides university and polytechnic higher education institutions, teacher and school associations can form In-service Teacher Education Centres.

The most important (and original) in service agency was the creation for all the country of Schools Association In Service Education Centres. They have the responsibility for in service education in a concrete territory, their boundaries being based on municipal boundaries²⁹. The associated schools appoint the director of the centre. The centre is physically located in one of the associated schools. Those centres had a mean value of over 762 teachers per centre and offered a mean value of 34 in service actions per year (1993-97)³⁰.

In-service teacher education is generally carried out through short-term actions of a minimum duration of 15 hours, the form of which have been politically defined: (i) courses; (ii) modules; (iii) attendance on higher education single subjects; (iv) seminars; (v) workshops; (vi) training placements; (vii) projects; (viii) study circle groups.

To be financed by the State and effect career advancement, all in-service education actions must be accredited³¹. The Scientific and Pedagogical Council for In-service Teacher Education is responsible for this accreditation procedure. It is composed of specialists appointed by the Ministry of Education. The accredited actions are attributed credits (required for advancement within a teaching career), 25 hours corresponds to one credit.

Schools Association In Service Education Centres have supplied most in-service education programmes – 72% of all accredited actions in 1999³².

"Courses" are the most popular in service modality – eight out of ten in 1996, seven out of tem in 1999. There was, in late 1990s, an appeal (from universities and teacher education colleges, from researchers and some trainers, from Government) for a school based approach to in service education. This approach emphasised teachers, projects, and school problems and demands as the real starting basis fort in service planning.

The accreditation body introduced, since 1998, new rules favouring context and problem based - workshops, training placements, projects, study circle groups. It also fostered a national debate with teacher centres and produced a doctrinaire document – A contribution for consolidation of professional practice oriented in service education"³³.

Content oriented in service education (courses, modules, seminars) represented 91% of all in service accredited actions in 1996 (88% of the really supplied ones from 1993 to 1997), 83% in 1998, 73% in 1999. Practice oriented in service actions (workshops, training placements, projects, study circle groups) represented 9% of all in service accredited actions in 1996 (5% of the really supplied ones from 1993 to 1997), 17% in 1998; 27% in 1999. So, there is now emerging a trend for a more practice oriented in service education.

The accreditation body is planning a process of substituting accreditation of singular in service actions by accreditation of Teacher Centres plans, thus giving more responsibilities to the centres and the schools.

2.5. In service teacher education – current issues

There are several issues related to teacher in service education, some related with pedagogy of in service training, others regarding the relationship between in service education, teacher performance, student achievement and school innovation.

2.5.1. In service teacher education, teacher performance, student achievement

A central issue is that of the benefits for schools, teachers and students of in service teacher education actions. One can formulate several questions:

1. What have been the effects of in service education for school innovations?
2. What have been the effects of in service education for improvement of teachers’ performance?
3. What has been the effect of in service education for students students’ achievement and success in school?

There has been no evaluation of the benefits of in service education. The only visible benefit has been always the effect of in service education in teacher career advancement, since this is bureaucratically defined. But it is essential for the legitimisation of the whole process to provide evidence of benefits for schools and gains for students.

It is natural to hypothesise that different contexts, modalities of actions, different centres plan has different effects. It is important to evaluate those benefits in order to disseminate new ideas and good practices.

The real purpose of in service education is improving teaching practice to benefit student in success in school.

2.5.2. In service teacher education and school innovation

These have been no specific national evaluation of in service program in this dimension. But there has been more academic research addressed to this area than to the previous one.

On a brief synthesis, one can conclude from the Portuguese research that context driven, school or teacher’s group based, context or solving problems in service education has more positive effects. Teacher involvement has impact on school innovations and on problem solving. That means often situations where teachers are, at the same time, trainers and trainees. There is also evidence that collaboration with outside specialist elements is important, to avoid excessive self-centredness and to illuminate practical issues too close to the teachers eyes to be appropriately perceived.

But one cannot look at in service education as the only process for schools problem solving. Some rhetoric praising the benefits of self governed in service education, may have as (in)intended effect a lesser investment of educational administration authorities in school problem solving.

2.6. In service teacher education and teaching career – current issues

2.6.1. Inservice teacher education and teachers career – pragmatic seek for credits

The strict relationship between in service credits and career advancement is certainly an issue subject to debate. If teacher career advancement is more based in presumed competencies obtained in initial training, in presumed gains obtained through in service actions, in gains in experience presumed by service time, in negative judgements that presume positive performances³⁴; one is building up a presumed reality which only works in the bureaucratic world.

If teacher career advancement is more based in presumed competencies rather than on evaluation of concrete performances in classrooms and schools, of concrete benefits for the students, one can lose track of the instrumental character of in service education considering it as an end in itself.

Most part of the discomfort felt by many (teachers, specialists, trainers, teacher education centre directors), about the pragmatic orientation of supply and demand, has much more to do with teacher career than with teacher education. One important reason being that there are many committed and innovative good in service practices that may become submerged in the "satisfactory" levelling mechanisms. . So, this discomfort is better analysed and solved in the teaching career study.

2.6.2. Inservice teacher education and teachers career – emergence of trainers as an important specialisation and differentiation in the system

In service education has been during the last decade (1990’s) more driven by the supply than by the demand. That is, it has been more influenced by the supply provided by accredited trainers than by demands formulated by schools or groups of teachers. This fact has to be linked the egalitarian culture still prevailing in schools and with state funding of in service education.

The more professionally or academic qualified teachers and also the more enthusiastic and committed ones found little room for recognition in school daily life and in teaching career advancement rules. This career includes explicit bureaucratic elements, like the years of service, and professional elements that have been transformed into the bureaucratic mould, like almost perfunctory performance evaluation and in-service education credits.

The need for some recognition and differentiation from more qualified teachers was underlying teachers culture in the 1990s (alongside with the egalitarian rhetoric of indifference to recognition, promotion, or power). Those qualified teachers found in the massive in service process the first opportunity to seek both professional recognition and supplementary income, since only qualified specialised qualified teachers can be in service trainers.

In the end of the last decade, a concern about the relevance of in service education emerged clearly. Relevance has been defined more in terms of national reform, schools needs and teachers improvement than in terms of gains for the students. The current challenge for in service education is to make visible and explicit the benefits for the schools, teachers and students of all the funding and effort involved.

3. SPECIALISED TEACHER EDUCATION IN PORTUGAL

3.1. The emergency of specialisations in the teaching function – 1970s-1990s

The widening of the teaching function included, right from the beginning, the diversification of tasks, activities, and positions. As said above, the first indicators of this need for diversification in mass schools were the creation of co-ordinators of all the teachers of a class ("class directors") and the co-ordinators of all the teachers of subject ("subject delegates")³⁵. Those answers were already given in the early 1970’s. Later on, more important and significant positions were created – "class director co-ordinator" and "head of curricular departments", among others.

In the 1980’s, the policy of integration of handicapped children and the support to children with learning disabilities created the "special education needs teacher" in regular schools. In the 1990’s, the set up of the massive in service education programs brought about the important position of in service teacher "trainer"³⁶ (formador).

All those specialised tasks and positions, alongside with traditional ones like student teacher supervision, existed in mass schools in the 1990’s.

3.2. The creation of specialised teacher education –1986 -1997

In answer to this situation, the 1986 Education Act differentiates between in service teacher education and specialised education. The Education Act considers the existence of specialised functions in the educational system and in schools (such as school management, inspection, class co-ordination, curricular co-ordination, etc ), the performance of which calls for specific qualifications. Decree-laws regulating teacher education (1989) and teaching career structure (1989) developed this concept.

Specialised teacher education is a professional training³⁷ that provides knowledge and skills on a specific domain of the teaching activity. It confers a professional qualification for the performance of specialised positions.

In 1997, it was set up an accreditation board for specialised teacher education programs. Academic course (masters, doctorates) and professional courses (specialisations, advanced diplomas) that intend to produce professional qualifications, has to be accredited by the Scientific and Pedagogical Council for In Service Education³⁸.

The specialised training and qualification fields set up in 1997 are as follows: (i) Special education; (ii) Educational administration; (iii) Community and adult education; (iv) Educational guidance; (v) Curriculum development; (vi) Pedagogical supervision and training of trainers; (vii) Teaching staff management and guidance; (viii) Educational communication and information management.

Differently of in service training:

1. Specialised teacher education has as main purpose to qualify for the performance of specific tasks or for holding of specialised positions;
2. Specialised teacher education can only be provided by higher education institutions;
3. Specialised teacher education confers a professional diploma or an academic degree or diploma that constitutes a professional qualification.

The most demanded courses have been the Special Education and the Educational Administration ones, followed by Community and Adult education and Pedagogical Supervision.

3.3. Specialised teacher education – current issues

"Access to specialised functions to be undertaken in schools does not yet depend on specific professional qualifications obtained through specialised education programmes and certified by higher education institutions. As noted, there is a political definition regarding qualifications and competencies needed to undertake these functions. However, access is not yet restricted to those who have acquired a specific professional qualification, nor do they receive priority." (Campos, 2000³⁹).

Under a technical rationale, one can ask what is the purpose of creating and funding so many specialised education courses and, at the same time, not giving priority to those thus qualified in the access to specialised functions? It would seem a waste of money and efforts.

But this is a rather linear view of the problem. An analysis of teacher’s professional culture can evidence a more complex perspective. Individualism and diffuse hierarchy⁴⁰ are main features of primary and secondary school teachers. In this culture, there is great resistance to any regulation that creates any status or hierarchic differentiation. Specialisation can create a specialised teacher status and, in some case, implies hierarchic differentiation. So, restriction of access, or even priority in access, to specialised functions contradicts this professional culture characteristic.

But, as it was already said, many qualified teachers do seek differentiated salary, status, or recognition. They can use specialised teacher education as an alternative route for career advancement⁴¹, since the acquisition of higher academic degrees contributes for career advancement.

The present situation ends up in a lack of commitment of specialised qualified teachers to perform specialised functions in schools. This can easily transform, for many teachers, specialised teacher education in a mere route to achieve better professional status⁴². Meaning that, from an egalitarian point of view, one can have some of the disadvantages without having any of the benefits.

Analysing the individualistic characteristic of teaching, one can discover new problems. In an individualistic professional culture, pedagogical practice is invisible and not accountable; "classroom sovereignty" is invoked to discourage any collegial "interference". As the role of specialised teachers implies generally to work with other teachers; it demands some degree of collegiality. Pushing forward specialisation without linking it with collegiality can induce a juxtaposition of invisible and not accountable specialised performances alongside with equally invisible and not accountable regular performances.

To conclude, to foster specialised teacher performance in schools requires also fostering a more collegial professional culture. Otherwise, one can have specialised status, specialised performances without benefits for regular teachers and their students.

¹ The concept of secondary education will be used in the comparative education definition of post-primary schooling organised around subject matters and curriculum discipline specialists rather than based on generalist teaching like infant and primary education. This is more accurate both in terms of teacher education pedagogical and legal models and in historical terms. Compulsory attendance as a defining criterion of what is basic education and what is secondary education, as it is the case in Portugal, does not take into account the fact that historically and culturally the distinction between primary and secondary education has an important analytical and explicative character. In Portugal one has a basic education composed of pre-school education (3 years), primary education (4 years) and lower secondary education (5 years) and a non compulsory education based on higher secondary education (3 years).

² As one bureaucratic circular letter said at the time – non-graduate teachers could not finish their secondary schooling in the same schools in which they were giving classes.

³ In 1973, four new universities were created. Three of those four were called upon the new universities (Aveiro, Évora, Minho) due to their different institutional culture and organisational dynamics. Those three immediately initiated teacher education courses under a professional perspective.

⁴ The integrated approach to initial teacher education means that the three main components of teacher education programs (scientific knowledge of the subject matter; educational sciences, including specific didactics; pedagogical practice) are assured in parallel. All components are present throughout the programme, supposedly in an integrated format – hence the denomination. As such graduates had in the process both an academic qualification and the teaching professional certificate. On labour terms, the importance of this approach is that shortened the certification process and made sure that all its graduates had an immediate access to employment and an easier access to tenure.

⁵ Humanities university student strikes, based on inequality of certification and employment opportunities, were also important in bringing about this adoption.

⁶ Teacher Education Colleges, the successors to Normal Schools, are integrated in Polytechnic higher education institutions. They do not have the same autonomy in the creation of courses as Universities and only have provided qualifications for pre-school and the 1^st and 2^nd cycles of basic education, that is, for infant and primary education and for the first part of compulsory secondary education.

⁷ Teacher Education Policies in Portugal, report presented to "Teacher Education Policies In The European Union", Algarve, 22-23 May, 2000.

⁸ The evaluation procedure that started in public higher education in the mid 90’s was extended to public and private polytechnic higher education only at the end of the decade. The first evaluation procedure of all institutions and programmes is expected to be completed in 2000.

⁹ Those nineteen years were spent in primary school (4 years), in secondary school (7 years), in university main course (5 years), in a university pedagogical course (1 year) and in field practice in a process of in service professional certification (2 years).

¹⁰ This evolution shows at the same time a gradual process of re-professionalization of primary teacher education and a decrease of demands on secondary teacher education due to mass schooling.

¹¹ Now secondary teacher education main route is seventeen years spent in primary school (4 years), in secondary compulsory school (5 years), in secondary non compulsory school (3 years), in university integrated teacher training course - 5 years, including the pedagogical component and one year of student teaching. Alternative routes (academic qualification + school teaching experience as non certified teacher + in service professional certification) can take two years more.

¹² The school does not inform parents on the professional or academic qualification of their student teachers. Neither the law nor the practice attributes, in the normal teaching functions of contact with the pupils

¹³ This teacher which compulsorily changes school every year, votes for a government body which he will not experience, can apply for projects and funding he will not be able to use.

¹⁴ The new teachers of the decade of 1970 and 1980 worked generally in overcrowded schools with provisional or incomplete facilities. He does not have a department room or a subject room. He does not gain the habit of working in the school outside the class rooms, since the school is conceived mainly as a collection of classrooms. So, one teacher said" I do not have in the school nothing that I can say it is mine - neither a room, nor a table, not even a corner".

¹⁵ This culture of the "bureaucratic minimum" is prevailing in many schools, but this does not mean that the majority of teachers is not committed to their students in their classrooms.

¹⁶ This led gradually to conflicting representations of what is teaching in mass schools from a mere "giver of classes" to being teaching to give classes in pre-arranged schedules.

¹⁷ Private education represented 18% of the total in 1964-65; represented only 9% twenty years later (1984-85).

¹⁸ Teacher Education Policies in Portugal, report presented to "Teacher Education Policies In The European Union", Algarve, 22-23 May, 2000.

¹⁹ One can include in this "universitisation" of teacher education the creation of Teacher Education Colleges in Polytechnic Institutions, since they are higher education institutions (by opposition to the previous Teaching Normal Schools) and their organisational culture is very much based on university culture. But, as they do not have the same autonomy in the creation of courses nor the same institutional social representation, the following considerations apply only partially to them.

²⁰ In the 1970s and 1980s, teachers depended upon teachers unions and educational authorities for in service education and debate of policy or practice issues.

²¹ There are emerging exceptions to this pattern. There are already some - very few, but interesting - studies about teacher education in universities.

²² Subject specialisation, curricular juxtaposition, departmental compartmentalisation and feudal fragmentation may explain why, in spite of the proliferation of teacher education courses, there are not many higher education schools that have an assumed pedagogical or curricular model.

²³ Once one get hold of a (subject-matter or discipline) feud it follows naturally to defend feudalism.

²⁴ Teacher Education Policies in Portugal, report presented to "Teacher Education Policies In The European Union", Algarve, 22-23 May, 2000.

²⁵ This concert effort has been recently more inclusive of parents associations leadership but not of teacher education institutions.

²⁶ Teachers unions were the first to feel, in mid 1980s, the need to provide their members (and teachers in general) with in service training to prepare teachers for the complexities of mass schooling. Universities and teacher education colleges attention was focused in initial training.

²⁷ In a bureaucratic culture, explicit and detailed descriptions of minimum job roles and duties transmit knowledge about the expected bureaucratic minimum. Some teachers tend to reduce their performance level close to that minimum.

²⁸ Accredited in service actions are attributed credits, 25 hours corresponds to one credit. Two credits are required for one scale stage advancement within the teaching career.

²⁹ There are centres that encompass more than one municipality; in big cities, there is more than one centre per municipality. There is 201 Schools Association In Service Education Centres, and 57 Teachers Association Centres.

³⁰ In Ferreira, Henrique, "Formação Contínua de Professores e Educadores: que Desafios ?", Seminário Europeu Organização e Avaliação da Formação. Ílhavo, Novembro 1999.

³¹ When these effects are not intended, teacher education supply is not subject to any politically defined conditions.

³² Source. Scientific and Pedagogical Council for the Accreditation of In Service Teacher Education 1999 Report.

³³ Contributos para a Consolidação da Formação Contínua Centrada nas Práticas Profissionais. Conselho Científico-Pedagógico da Formação Contínua, 1998.

³⁴ Current teacher evaluation is based on the absence of record of unsatisfactory behaviour, which is seen as a presumption of an adequate performance.

³⁵ As said above, "class director" still is a very widespread function in secondary schools (5th to 12th year) both in basic education and non compulsory one. In the 1980’s and 1990’s class director roles were extended to communication with class parents, in individual attendance and meeting "Subject delegates" is also considered part of a teacher’s role.

³⁶ In service trainers are also subject to accreditation by the Scientific and Pedagogical Council for In Service Education.

³⁷ The access to specialisation teacher course is restricted to teachers who have five or more years of field experience. This means that professional experience is a substantive condition that can be almost as a curricular component of the course.

³⁸ Specialisation teacher education courses have three components: (i) a general educational sciences component; (ii) specific education in the field of specialisation (iii) a field project. The programme’s minimum duration is 250 effective training hours.

³⁹ Teacher Education Policies in Portugal, report presented to "Teacher Education Policies In The European Union", Algarve, 22-23 May, 2000.

⁴⁰ Diffuse hierarchy can originate in egalitarian perspectives or in mere control avoidance demands.

⁴¹ "Acquisition of a certain number of credits by attending accredited in-service education actions is a minimum requirement for advancement from one career level to another. This is the common way for linking education and career. There is, however, another though less frequently used way: graduation with academic degrees of a higher level than the one held (licenciado, master and doctor). For example, as most pre-school and primary teachers and some subject-matter teachers, graduate with the Baccalaureate, it has recently become possible for them to acquire the licenciado degree through completion of a complementary programme organised by higher education institutions. This allows career progression in terms of salary. Career progression is also possible with the obtention of a masters or doctor degree". Campos, 2000. Teacher Education Policies in Portugal, report presented to "Teacher Education Policies In The European Union", Algarve, 22-23 May, 2000.

⁴² Many of the specialised teachers seek teaching opportunities in public or private teacher education colleges or in universities.